Nanomaterials

 

The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.^[35]

• Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.
• Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.
• Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see Nanomedicine.
• Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar cells.
• Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to be used in the next generation of products, such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging; see quantum dots.
• Recent application of nanomaterials include a range of biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, antibacterials and biosensors.^{[36][37][38][39][40]}

NANO

 

In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno,^[29] is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Richard Smalley argued that mechanosynthesis are impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules.

This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.^[30] Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-biological molecular machines are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular machines are Dr. Alex Zettl and his colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley.[1] Archived 2015-10-08 at the Wayback Machine They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator,^[31] and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.^[32] See nanotube nanomotor for more examples.

An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho and Lee at Cornell University in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver crystal, and chemically bound the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage.

Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view

 

Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, describes engineered nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially associated with the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.

When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric Drexler (who at the time was unaware of an earlier usage by Norio Taniguchi) it referred to a future manufacturing technology based on molecular machine systems. The premise was that molecular-scale biological analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated molecular machines were possible: by the countless examples found in biology, it is known that sophisticated, stochastically optimized biological machines can be produced.

It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, Drexler and other researchers^[27] have proposed that advanced nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic means, ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings, motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic specification.^[28] The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in Drexler's book Nanosystems.

Molecular self-assembly

 

Simple to complex: a molecular perspective

Main article: Molecular self-assembly

Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules to almost any structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.

These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up approach. The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces. The Watson–Crick basepairing rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole.

Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most notably Watson–Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural ones.

Nanomaterials

 

Larger to smaller: a materials perspective

Image of reconstruction on a clean Gold(100) surface, as visualized using scanning tunneling microscopy. The positions of the individual atoms composing the surface are visible.

Main article: Nanomaterials

Several phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the "quantum size effect" where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, quantum effects can become significant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically at distances of 100 nanometers or less, the so-called quantum realm. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred to nanoionics. Mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials.

Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances can become transparent (copper); stable materials can turn combustible (aluminium); insoluble materials may become soluble (gold). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.^[26]

Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems

 

Fundamental concepts

Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to the projected ability to construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being developed today to make complete, high-performance products.

One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10⁻⁹, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12–0.15 nm, and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life-forms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length. By convention, nanotechnology is taken as the scale range 1 to 100 nm following the definition used by the National Nanotechnology Initiative in the US. The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm kinetic diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules. The upper limit is more or less arbitrary but is around the size below which the phenomena not observed in larger structures start to become apparent and can be made use of in the nano device.^[21] These new phenomena make nanotechnology distinct from devices which are merely miniaturised versions of an equivalent macroscopic device; such devices are on a larger scale and come under the description of microtechnology.^[22]

To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.^[23] Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount an average man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face.^[23]

Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition.^[24] In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control.^[25]

analogous atomic force microscope

 

The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter. In the 1980s, two major breakthroughs sparked the growth of nanotechnology in the modern era. First, the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 which provided unprecedented visualization of individual atoms and bonds, and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.^[10][11] Binnig, Quate and Gerber also invented the analogous atomic force microscope that year.

Buckminsterfullerene C₆₀, also known as the buckyball, is a representative member of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. Members of the fullerene family are a major subject of research falling under the nanotechnology umbrella.

Second, fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl, who together won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.^[12][13] C₆₀ was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related carbon nanotubes (sometimes called graphene tubes or Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices. The discovery of carbon nanotubes is largely attributed to Sumio Iijima of NEC in 1991,^[14] for which Iijima won the inaugural 2008 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience.

In the early 2000s, the field garnered increased scientific, political, and commercial attention that led to both controversy and progress. Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.^[15] Challenges were raised regarding the feasibility of applications envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology, which culminated in a public debate between Drexler and Smalley in 2001 and 2003.^[16]

Meanwhile, commercialization of products based on advancements in nanoscale technologies began emerging. These products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter. Some examples include the Silver Nano platform for using silver nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent, nanoparticle-based transparent sunscreens, carbon fiber strengthening using silica nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes for stain-resistant textiles.^[17][18]

Governments moved to promote and fund research into nanotechnology, such as in the U.S. with the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which formalized a size-based definition of nanotechnology and established funding for research on the nanoscale, and in Europe via the European Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development.

By the mid-2000s new and serious scientific attention began to flourish. Projects emerged to produce nanotechnology roadmaps^[19][20] which center on atomically precise manipulation of matter and discuss existing and projected capabilities, goals, and applications.

History of nanotechnology

 

The concepts that seeded nanotechnology were first discussed in 1959 by renowned physicist Richard Feynman in his talk There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom, in which he described the possibility of synthesis via direct manipulation of atoms.

Comparison of Nanomaterials Sizes

The term "nano-technology" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was not widely known. Inspired by Feynman's concepts, K. Eric Drexler used the term "nanotechnology" in his 1986 book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology, which proposed the idea of a nanoscale "assembler" which would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity with atomic control. Also in 1986, Drexler co-founded The Foresight Institute (with which he is no longer affiliated) to help increase public awareness and understanding of nanotechnology concepts and implications.

The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter. In the 1980s, two major breakthroughs sparked the growth of nanotechnology in the modern era. First, the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 which provided unprecedented visualization of individual atoms and bonds, and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.^[10][11] Binnig, Quate and Gerber also invented the analogous atomic force microscope that year.

Nanotechnology as defined by size

Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally broad, including fields of science as diverse as surface science, organic chemistry, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, energy storage,^[3][4] engineering,^[5] microfabrication,^[6] and molecular engineering.^[7] The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly,^[8] from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.

Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, biomaterials energy production, and consumer products. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials,^[9] and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

Nanotechnology

 Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology.^[1][2] A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defined nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm). This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and applications whose common trait is size.

Numeric string handling

 Numeric string handling changed to be more intuitive and less error-prone. Trailing whitespace is now allowed in numeric strings for consistency with how leading whitespace is treated. This mostly affects:

• The is_numeric() function
• String-to-string comparisons
• Type declarations
• Increment and decrement operations

The concept of a “leading-numeric string” has been mostly dropped; the cases where this remains exist in order to ease migration. Strings which emitted an E_NOTICE “A non well-formed numeric value encountered” will now emit an E_WARNING “A non-numeric value encountered” and all strings which emitted an E_WARNING “A non-numeric value encountered” will now throw a TypeError. This mostly affects:

• Arithmetic operations
• Bitwise operations

This E_WARNING to TypeError change also affects the E_WARNING “Illegal string offset ‘string'” for illegal string offsets. There are no changes in the behavior of explicit casts to int/float from strings.

Named parameters

Support has also been added for named parameters. This has two major implications:

1. Renaming parameters becomes a breaking change. If a parameter is renamed then anywhere that function is called with named parameters will break.
2. The behaviour of call_user_func_array() changes. Previously call_user_func_array() could be called with an associative array. Now passing an associative array will be interpreted as using named parameters, which will cause an Exception to be thrown, if any of the named parameters do not exist.

API changes which could lead to type errors

Below we’ve compiled a list with some examples of API changes that will lead to type or argument errors where there were no indications as such in previous PHP versions.

• mktime() and gmmktime() now require at least one argument. time() can be used to get the current timestamp.
• spl_autoload_register() will now always throw a TypeError on invalid arguments, therefore the second argument $do_throw is ignored and a notice will be emitted if it is set to false.
• assert() will no longer evaluate string arguments, instead they will be treated like any other argument. assert($a == $b) should be used instead assert(‘$a == $b’). The assert.quiet_eval ini directive and the ASSERT_QUIET_EVAL constant have also been removed, as they will no longer have any effect.
• The $args argument of vsprintf(), vfprintf(), and vprintf() must now be an array. Previously any type was accepted.
• Arguments with a default value that resolves to null at runtime will no longer implicitly mark the argument type as nullable. Either use an explicit nullable type, or an explicit null default value instead.

The most worrisome breaking changes in PHP 8

 

Strict typing on internals in PHP 8

One of the most important breaking changes in PHP 8 has to do with strict typing. User-defined functions in PHP already throw a TypeError. However, internal functions emitted warnings and returned null. PHP 8 makes this consistent and internal functions now also throw a TypeError. This will not only impact functions that already threw warnings prior to PHP 8, but also magic methods (which previously weren’t type checked) and functions that have had type declarations introduced. For this reason, it’s not possible to catch all issues that arise from this change by fixing the type warnings in PHP 7.4 environments. Below is an overview of related breaking changes that together define the scope of strict typing related changes in PHP 8.

Consistent type errors

As of PHP 8 internal functions now throw a TypeError for all typed arguments.

Arithmetic operator type checks

The arithmetic and bitwise operators +, -, *, /, **, %, <<, >>, &, |, ^, ~, ++, — will now consistently throw a TypeError when one of the operands is an array, resource or non-overloaded object. The only exception to this is the array + array union operation, which remains supported.

Before PHP 8, it was possible to apply arithmetic or bitwise operators on arrays, resources or objects. This isn’t possible anymore, and will throw a TypeError.

Magic methods type checks

Magic Methods will now have their arguments and return types checked if they have them declared. The signatures should match the following list:

• __call(string $name, array $arguments): mixed
• __callStatic(string $name, array $arguments): mixed
• __clone(): void
• __debugInfo(): ?array
• __get(string $name): mixed
• __invoke(mixed $arguments): mixed
• __isset(string $name): bool
• __serialize(): array
• __set(string $name, mixed $value): void
• __set_state(array $properties): object
• __sleep(): array
• __unserialize(array $data): void
• __unset(string $name): void
• __wakeup(): void

How come there are so many breaking changes in PHP 8?

 PHP 8 is a major update of PHP and it is common practice to remove deprecations in major versions from the previous range of minor versions. For PHP 8, many of the breaking changes have been deprecated in previous 7.* versions. So for projects that were diligently updated over the years fixing their deprecated API’s, it shouldn’t be hard to upgrade at all. 

However, PHP 7.* versions have seen a far larger set of deprecations than previous versions of PHP. Where PHP 5.6 to PHP 7 was a relatively simple migration, going from 7.x to 8 could be very painful, especially for very old codebases, like WordPress and many of the plugins that are available for it. For well-typed codebases or codebases which have stayed up-to-date with the latest PHP versions, there isn’t a big problem. The reality, however, is that WordPress is not such a codebase.

Isn’t WordPress already compatible with PHP 8?

Well… Yes. Sort of. Maybe. We are highly doubtful. It’s really not possible to tell.

WordPress aims to always be compatible with new versions of PHP. Sergey did an amazing job in fixing most of the compatibility issues that could be detected using the available strategies. We’ll definitely dive deeper into what those are and the issues that exist with them. Technically, the compatibility of the current nightly of WordPress with PHP 8 is at the same level as we’re used to from WordPress releases right before a new version of PHP comes out. We believe the testing was as extensive, the fixing was as diligent and the level of fixes was as high as any round of PHP compatibility fixing within WordPress core. See also the call for testing on PHP 8 on WordPress.org.

However, doing what we’ve always done, unfortunately, will not cut it this time. The sheer amount of breaking changes and the type of changes included in PHP 8, plus some added complexities in cross-version tooling, make this compatibility challenge a different beast from what we’ve seen before. This report aims to explain how that is the case.

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1919 Big Bear Yoga Festival Sunday, October 5, 2019 Big Bear Lake, California

1919

Big Bear Yoga Festival
Sunday, October 5, 2019
Big Bear Lake, California 

www.BigBearYogaFestival.com 
https://www.facebook.com/BigBearYogaFestival/
https://www.instagram.com/bigbearyogafest/
https://bigbearyoga.eventbrite.com

Welcome to the Big Bear Yoga Festival!

An amazing day of music, movement, health, vegetarian food & fun! Join us and enjoy amazing teachers for in-depth workshops, tons of classes to choose from and live music. A special post-festival Sunday workshop will top off an amazing weekend with a glittering bow of delight with relaxtion, integration and joy.

You can choose from lectures on health and wellness, a wide range of yoga classes, yummy food, live music and guided meditation along with lots of outside fun like Outdoor Yoga. From the festival location at the Performing Arts Center (PAC) there are miles of hiking trails to explore, plenty of space to relax and find serenity. 

Who should come to the festival? What about people new to yoga?

Everyone is welcome! Anyone new to yoga is especially welcome – we have beginning, easy and introductory classes just for you! This is a wonderful opportunity to explore and try something new. More experienced students will also have a wide range of classes to pick from, and an opportunity to deepen your practice. Bring an open mind!

New in 2019:

There are many changes this year, and we are excited to have you there.

The event will again be held again at the Performing Arts Center (PAC) in Big Bear Lake - AND - Announcing additional class spaces at Sa Ha Le Lodge! In response to the request from students for more and bigger class locations we are adding the lodge, which is just around the corner from the PAC and within easy walking distance. This will provide us with additional indoor and outdoor spaces.

In order to keep the festival rolling along, we need to implement a fee structure for some of the festival classes and activities. There will be FREE outside Yoga Classes, and a fee structure. Vendor Village is FREE for people to attend.

Scholorships are available for the Saturday fee-based classes.

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